Sexual Seduction

Sexual Seduction & Freud Psy. 405 Psychoanalysis was huge in the success of Sigmund Freud. Freud proclaimed that we are not the rational rulers of our lives but are under the influence of unconscious forces of which we are unaware and over which we have little, if any, control. Freud was pondering over the sexual basis of emotional disturbances. Sexual abuse as a child or adolescent affects ones future as an adult. Child sexual abuse has been reported up to 80,000 times a year (Facts for Family, 2011).Sexual seduction in childhood seems to be reported mostly by woman to be the root of their behavior and main reason for needing some kind of therapy practice. Because of the abuse it affects you more as an adult when you’re trying to have a relationship or sexual contact with others and so I focus on Freud’s theories and therapy practices to understand ways to cope and get passed the abuse. His approach evolves in steps such as levels of consciousness or theory of consciou sness, analysis of mental structures, psychosexual stages of development, defense mechanisms, and means of tapping the unconscious.Provided are some statistics to outline how big of an issue this is. The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Children’s Bureau report Child Maltreatment 2010 found that 9. 2% of victimized children were sexually assaulted (p24). Studies by David Finkelhor, Director of the Crimes Against Children Research Center show that 1 in 5 girls and 1 in 20 boys is a victim of child sexual abuse. Self-report studies show that 20% of adult females and 5-10% of adult males recall a childhood sexual assault or sexual abuse incident.During a one-year period in the U. S. , of youth ages 14 to 17 had been sexually victimized. Over the course of their lifetime, 28% of U. S. youth ages 14 to 17 had been sexually victimized. Children are most vulnerable to child sexual abuse between the ages of 7 and 13 (Finkelhor, 2009). Although no one wants to hea r these statistics and believe that this occurs it’s sad to say it doesn’t end here. According to a 2003 National Institute of Justice report, 3 out of 4 adolescents who have been sexually victimized by someone they knew well (p5).Sexual abuse when you’re young and sexual abuse from someone you know well all factors into how you are when you’re an adult. Freud’s seduction hypothesis concluded that emotional disturbances could be related to childhood sexual trauma. To get a little overview and insight into this big issue I will discuss the case of Anna O. Anna O. was Josef Breuer’s patient whom also shared this and many other cases with Freud. This case is what started the development of psychoanalysis. Through her therapy she would recall specific experiences that seemed to have given rise to certain symptoms.Talking about her experiences often relieved the symptoms. She referred to their conversations as chimney sweeping or the talking cure . As their sessions continued, Breuer realized that the incidents Anna remembered involved thoughts or events she found repulsive. Reliving the disturbing experiences reduced or eliminated the symptoms. All nightmares, phobias, and fears which influence you but why you have them is because of the unconscious and Freud suggests ways or techniques of reaching that unconscious through his free association technique.A child who is the victim of prolonged sexual abuse usually develops low self-esteem, a feeling of worthlessness and an abnormal or distorted view of sex (Facts for families, 2011). Although each individual is different some unique responses to sexual abuse that are common among many is low self-esteem or self-hatred and many survivors suffer from depression. There is a lack of trust for anyone especially if it’s someone they were dependent upon like family and teachers. 93% of victims under the age of 18 know their attacker (Finkelhor, 2009).Many have flashbacks wher e they re-experience the sexual abuse as if it were occurring at that moment, usually accompanied by visual images of the abuse. These flashbacks often are triggered by an event, action, or even a smell that is reminiscent of the sexual abuse of the abuser. Dissociation may also occur where survivors go through a process where the mind distances itself from the experience because it is too much for the psyche to process at the time. This loss of connection with thoughts, memories, feelings, actions or sense of identity, is a coping mechanism and may affect aspects of a survivor’s functioning.Sexuality and intimacy also affect a survivor because they have to deal with the fact that one of their first sexual encounters was a result of abuse. These memories may interfere with the survivor’s ability to engage in sexual relationships, which may bring about feelings of fright, frustration, or being ashamed. Many use coping mechanisms such as grieving, mourning, alcohol, drug abuse, eating disorders, and self-injury and so on mostly because you feel ashamed to confront someone about it. Those who have the courage to let it out often seek therapy.I base this paper on Freud’s seduction theory and therapy technique to help survivors overcome their issues. For example many sexual abuse survivors struggle with developing normal adult sexual intimacy abilities and may feel as though they are defective, damaged, or otherwise flawed (Kress, Hoffman, Thomas, 2008). Freud developed his theory from a clinical study of the relationship between childhood seduction and the development of adult emotional disorder. Freud who had no doubt that sex played the determining role in neurosis and that neurotic conditions could not arise in a person who led a normal sex life.This was discussed in the free-association technique and seduction theory. In this technique survivors will struggle but will be able to build or rebuild a positive self-identity. Much research has been done in the study of incest trauma being the root and even in Freud’s free-association technique, his patient’s revealed sexual seduction, with the seducer usually being an older relative and thus caused adult neurotic behavior. Sexual abuse often affects someone emotionally and sexually later in life when accepting relationships with others. Everyone is different but two things could occur.You either are frightened by any relationship with someone emotional and sexually or you can become a sex addict. Freud was looking for a long-term cure of symptoms individuals had. He soon gave up catharsis as a treatment method and developed from it the technique of free association. This is a psychotherapeutic technique in which the patient says whatever comes to mind. In this technique a patient lies on the couch and is encouraged to talk openly and spontaneously, giving complete expression to every idea, no matter how embarrassing, unimportant, or foolish it may sound.His goal was to bring in conscious awareness the repressed memories or thoughts, which were assumed to be the source of the patients abnormal behavior. The thoughts that came to the patients mind were said by Freud to not be random and have some connection during the free-association sessions. The experiences brought into memory were predetermined and could not be censored by the patient’s conscious choice. Externalizing may also help clients connect with solutions and options they may not normally realize (Kress et al, 2008). The patient’s conflict would be forced out so that it had to be expressed to the therapist.Therapists need to develop clinical skills and interventions that are specific to counseling this population (Kress et al, 2008) just like Freud and his free-association technique. Kress, Hoffman, and Thomas (2008) explained it this way; The technique of externalizing client problems, or separating the identity of the client from the presenting problems, or sep arating the identity of the client from the presenting concerns, may have the effect of increasing the client’s sense of control over the perceived problems and increasing internalized personal agency and, thus, a sense of empowerment (p107).Through the free-association technique, Freud found that his patient’s memories brought up an experience from childhood that had a connection they repressed concerning sexual issues. By 1898, he was convinced that â€Å"the most immediate and, for practical purposes, the most significant causes of neurotic illness are to be found in factors arising from sexual life† (Breger, 2000, p117). He also points out some specifics on the seduction theory such as the seducer being an older relative, often the father and that these seduction traumas were the cause of adult neurotic behavior.His patients were hesitant about describing details of the seduction experience as though the events were somehow unreal or had never really happene d. A consistent research finding about adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse is difficulty with establishing and maintaining intimate relationships (Gil, 2008). By providing a couple of examples you’ll see where Freud would come in with his seduction theory and free-association hypothesis. The case of the women in this article by Rachman, Kennedy, and Yard (2005) resembled the well-known case of Anna O which became the upmost importance in the development of psychoanalysis.The woman, whom they called Miss M, was sexually molested by a male family figure when she was two years old. She then started to masturbate using a pencil and was scolded and blamed for misbehaving. Her mother reacted to her masturbation as if it were an immoral behavior and was not curious as to the origins of her daughter’s premature sexuality. Miss M started to become highly seductive with men. Through therapy she worked out this problem over a period of about a year to understand her trauma and dysfunction.These difficulties impact male selection, interactional patterns, conflict resolution, balance of power, satisfaction, and the nature and frequency of sexual contact (Gil, 2008). Miss M overcame these difficulties and was then able to begin a steady relationship and soon got married and started a family. Another case provided by Rachman et al (2005) was with Laura and her therapist. Laura was sexually abused by her mother, cousin, and brothers. She quickly initiated an obsessively laden, angry, erotic transference.Laura interpreted the empathy of the therapist for her childhood trauma. Laura thought that as the therapist showed interest in her, so just like her mother, the therapist must desire her sexually, and she must respond to the therapist as she did with her mother. Laura reflected that her life was always haunted by being vulnerable to being â€Å"hit on† physically and sexually at any moment by her siblings. When Laura would recall her past she would link what she started to do with others. She was behaving just as her mother did in a sexually abusive fashion.The therapist worked on this behavior but it was not concluded in the article what the result was or what the effect of the therapy had on her. The therapist was also not named in this example. In this same article was an example of a therapist, Bob Kennedy and his patient Vivian. Vivian’s marriage was falling apart. She noted that her husband was unable to satisfy her emotionally. This was because of a sexual involvement with her father when she was young. Through the course of the therapy sessions Vivian accepted the idea that her childhood sexuality with her father was abusive.Survivors will need assistance in strengthening or enhancing the quality of their relationships, as well as addressing unresolved childhood traumas that may unconsciously shape their attitudes and behaviors (Gil, 2008). She eventually abandoned her sexual aggression and gave the impression o f feeling safe, assured there would be no repletion of the abuse she had once suffered. Once she was able to come to this conclusion she then could have a satisfying relationship with her husband. In the article by Bachman, Kennedy, and Yard they explained in detail and through these examples the root to therapy.Once you understand the erotic behavior toward another as a mode of communication from their childhood sexual trauma, that the experience can be viewed as an opportunity for a therapeutic encounter. It’s through free-association analysis that could succeed in accepting responsibility for their own forbidden feelings, their sexuality, aggression, and guilt that had previously been projected onto others. Talking your issue out will make you realize how wrong sexual seduction is. Partners and spouses of adult survivors benefit from assistance as well.Partner and spouses often report feelings of isolation, fear, helplessness and hopelessness, frustration and anger (Gil, 2 008). This could have been why Vivian’s marriage was falling apart and yet it all came down to her abuse as a child. Spouses may also find that their efforts to obtain intimacy are thwarted by the survivor’s need to use reflexive defense strategies (Gil, 2008). Free-association therapy is not easy to go through because you need to dig up everything in your past and in conscious thought that you may not want to relive.There are many steps to relieving the headaches of seduction to the desired outcome in the free-association therapy. Resistance is one of them steps. This is the blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories during a free-association session. Repression also is the process of barring unacceptable ideas, memories, or desires from conscious awareness, leaving them to operate in the unconscious mind. Being sexually seduced brings on anxiety. Freud explains defense mechanisms to reduce anxiety.Psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital) o f personality development include denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation. Denial is considered denying the existence of an external threat or traumatic event. Displacement is for example replacing hostility toward one’s boss with hostility toward one’s child. Projection is attributing impulse toward someone else. Rationalization is for example saying that a job you got fired from was not a good job for you anyway.Reaction formation for example is someone disturbed by sexual longings who may become a crusader against pornography. Regression is going back to a less frustrating period in life and displacing the childish and dependent behaviors of that time. Repression is denying the existence of something that gives you anxiety. Sublimation is altering impulses by doing socially acceptable behaviors such as diverting sexual energy into artistically creative behaviors. Through these steps free associat ion is not that easy but is effective.No one who is sexually abused is going to be able to be free of their anxiety very fast and effectively. There is always going to be downfalls at some points and each individual is different in the amount of time it will take to overcome it. It’s encouraged for the patients to meet certain situations that arise and learn to cope with the unpleasant sensations by remaining focused in therapy and talks it out. References Facts for Families: Child Sexual Abuse. (2011). American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. No. 9 Finkelhor, D. (2009).The prevention of childhood abuse. Vol. 19 No. 2 Gil, E. (2008). Training topics. 1-10 Kress, V. , Hoffman, R. , Thomas, A. (2008). Letters from the future: the use of therapeutic letter writing in counseling sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 3(2), 105-118 National Institute for Justice Report. (2003) P. 5 Rachman, A. , Kennedy, R. , Yard, M. (2005). The role of childh ood sexual seduction in the development of an erotic transference: pervasion in the psychoanalytic situation. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 14, 183-187

Psychological studies Essay

Culture bias is a term which covers several types of bias in psychology. It can be used to refer to judgements and prejudices about certain cultures, or methodological biases which lead to such biased conclusions. For example, although a method of research may be developed and found to be reliable in one culture, the same may not be true in another. Culture bias in methodology prevents us from being able to identify innate behaviour in cross-cultural research. One type of culture bias is ethnocentrism, which is the tendency to use one’s own culture as a basis for judgements about others. Eurocentrism, ethnocentrism from the perspective of Western cultures, is particularly widespread in modern Psychology, as it is commonplace for findings based solely on, for example, American participants to be generalised to people across the globe. The relevance of psychological research carried out in Western countries to the wider world is questionnable. A large amount of this issue is a result of methodology. Because mundane realism and ecological validities have so much effect on the generalisation of findings, in order for findings to be relevant across cultures, the methodology must hold these characteristics no matter which culture it is carried out in. Failure to do so may lead to false conclusions, which by definition hinder the main goal of Psychology; that is, the ability to understand human behaviour. A prominent piece of research that often receives attention for its culture bias is that of Ainsworth & Bell (1970). The ‘strange situation’ research method used in their study of infant attachments, and their subsequent conclusions, have received criticism for eurocentrism. The strange situation is used to observe levels of distress and other behaviours in an infant upon, for example, separation from a parent. This may itself be culture biased because of its individualist nature. If an infant is used to interaction with others, like in Israeli kibbutzim, then separation from a parent will be much less stressful in the ‘strange situation’; but this may not imply that the infant is less attached to its parent. The classifications drawn by Ainsworth & Bell are also culturally biased, because they explicitly state which type of attachment is desirable (secure) and which types are undesirable (insecure). This, combined with the eurocentrism of the methodology itself, has led to parenting styles and infant attachments in some cultures to be mislabelled as inferior to those of the United States, and yet no significant negative effects related to attachments have been observed in such cultures. Another study frequently criticised for eurocentrism is Milgram’s (1963) study into obedience, in which participants were deceived into believing that they were required to administer high-voltage electric shocks to a confederate. In a Smith & Bond’s (1998) comparison of replications of the same study in different cultures, it was shown that there were differences between cultures in how many people obeyed the researcher in the experiment. For example, 65% of Americans, compared with 85% of Germans, 40% of Australian males, 16% of Australian females and 62% of Jordanians conformed. This indicates cultural differences, meaning that the Milgram’s conclusions may hold cultural bias; but at the same time such cultural differences may not actually exist. It may be that the research method is not suitable for all of the cultures, or that the research method was carried out in different ways in different cultures. The method used was criticised for being unrepresentative of real life in Western cultures, and so it is likely that it is also unrepresentative of real life in other cultures (such as that of Jordan), or even that the differences between the research environment and real life as even more significant in other cultures. We cannot be sure about the members of these cultures until such differences are ruled out. Many theories have also been criticised for their culturally biased nature. Economic exchange theories of relationship development and maintenance particularly fall under this category, as, according to Moghaddam (1998), they only apply to Western relationships, and even then only to people in short-term relationships and with high mobility. It may be that relationship theories such as this apply only to individualist cultures and are not suitable for describing relationships in collectivist cultures. However, placing a culture on the ‘individualism-collectivism continuum’ is not as easy as first thought. In relationship theories, the US if often cited as an individualist culture and Japan as a collectivist culture; but when Takano & Osaka (1999) reviewed 15 studies to compare the two nations, only 14 studies supported the distinction. This indicates that even relationship theories which allow for differences between individualist and collectivist cultures are biased because they underestimate the role of situational factors and overestimate that of personal characteristics when analysing of behaviour. Another theory frequently noted for its culture bias is Kohlberg’s (1976) theory of moral understanding. This stage theory describes morality from a very Western, democratic perspective. However, these morals may not be held in other parts of the world, meaning that the theory may lack relevance in the wider world. When Snarey (1985) studied traditional village societies, only the first four stages from Kohlberg’s theory were found to be present, with the stage post-conventional reasoning being completely absent. On fact, it was fount that many moral judgements from some cultures did not fit into any of Kohlberg’s stages, suggesting that his theory does not account for other forms of reasoning.

Is Ethics Natural or Learned Behavior?

Human beings have an innate ethical sense that urges them to make predictable choices. Although most people believe their actions are guided by logic and reason, reason often acts only as a way to justify these choices. Ethics is a learned behavior, a behavior that starts from childhood. Every individual has choices in life. And everyone’s perception of right and wrong may not be the same. This discussion will be based on is ethics natural or learned behavior? The ability to speak allows people to come up with rationales which support what are genetically driven decisions. Even though genetics may play a part, I believe ethics is a learned behavior. In understanding ethics, we must first realize that pretense and dissimulation are rooted in our genes. As part of the prehistoric mechanism for survival, human beings unfortunately identify with lying and manipulating. Lying and cheating are believed by too many to be legitimate tools in the quest to achieve selfish ends (www. ethicseducation. com). Despite this truth, as we learned as children, cooperation is actually the better way to achieve individual success therefore ethics can definitely be learned. The history of ethical thought is in this regard a record of attempts to promote communal behavior in order to ensure stability within a group. Many middle and high school students today will tell you that they themselves determine, as does every other individual, the standards of right and wrong. Students will resist the notion that they owe anything to anyone, or that they have any absolute obligation toward society. They recognize that wrongs can be done, but have a very difficult time judging their own actions to be wrong. There is an underlying attitude of: nothing I do can be truly wrong because I am ultimately the final judge of what is right and wrong for me. Ethics is about the individual. The fact that students can be taught to be tolerant of different opinions and see that a variance of viewpoints can be legitimate contradicts the belief that ethics is a natural occurrence. In some instances moral behavior can be natural. Recent studies have shown that dolphins and other marine mammals, chimpanzees, apes, monkeys and even dogs possess a moral sense, and display many of the behaviors considered basic to most normative human ethical standards. Equality, reciprocity, even altruism, have been detected and recorded among these animals, as well as treachery, deceit and manipulation. In fact, a kind of what goes around comes around golden rule is fundamental to the social relationships of most primates. This being said, there must be some sort of social instinct rooted in our genes. Man is driven by innate genetic forces and is capable of making thoughtful assessments of what is happening. Ethics investigates how we can evaluate our behavior in terms of right and wrong, good and bad.

Acadian ambulance service Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Acadian ambulance service - Essay Example Flight system. Acadian ambulance service offers specialized aviation services with international expertise. It provides information required to make conversant decisions and to deal with the risks effectively. The flight services make it expedient to travel with increased concentration on valuable experience. The flight services of Acadian Ambulance Service is available 24/7 for any emergency services with safe, relaxed and effortless travel ([2] Acadian, â€Å"Executive Aircraft Charter Service†). Employment opportunities. Acadian Ambulance Service is known for providing excellent employment opportunities and offering them a greater prospect to grow as professionals. It helps the employees to progress and to try different activities in order to help and improve the ambulance services which can have positive impact on the life of others. In Acadian Ambulance Service, there are diverse employment opportunities for individuals to select such as HR generalist, billing specialist, safety technician and pilot among others ([3] Acadian, â€Å"Careers†). Pension system. Acadian Ambulance Service is committed to provide several pension and benefitsto its employees. It allows employees the flexibility to select such benefits and plans which matters highly for their individual objectives. The pension plans of Acadian Ambulance Service are based on delivering keen support to the wellness of its employees along with their families (Acadia University, â€Å"Total Reward Philosophy†). Benefits. Acadian Ambulance Service provides several benefits to the employees. The remunerations and benefits are regarded as a key portion of the organization’s strategy and it also determines its image as an ideal place to work. The benefits provided by Acadian Ambulance Service comprise reasonable earnings, dental plan, family assistance program, sports affiliation, leisure services, fuel

Cell phones and how they have changed us socially Research Paper

Cell phones and how they have changed us socially - Research Paper Example The 20th century witnessed an explosion of technological growth. Telephone technology dates back to the late 19th century through the inventions of Alexander Graham Bell and the subsequent Bell Telephone Company. Still, it wasn’t until the 20th century through American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) that the Western world experienced the profound impacts of this technology, and not until the late end of this century that cell phones would come to dominate the social landscape. Indeed, between 1990 and 1998 cell phone subscribers increased from 11 million to 312 million (Stevens 2010). Along with the Internet, cell phones would come to profoundly impact the way humans interact and function in the contemporary world. This essay examines the way cell phones have changed us socially. The most prevalent impact of cell phones on social life has been in the very fabric of humanity’s daily existence. Within this context of understanding it’s demonstrated that individuals have gained considerable social freedom from the implementation of cell phone technology. Hindel (2008) argues that cell phones and this corresponding freedom have resulted in advancements in time management and efficiency that have profoundly altered the modern world. Today people are more independent and confident – considering having a cell phone on a long drive – in navigating the modern social landscape. Still, individuals such as Davis (2010) argue that the infusion of cell phone technology has had a negative impact on human social relations. This perspective contends that cell phones have resulted in a generation of people who have learned to communicate primarily through the mediation of these devices. This has resulted in a populace that is unable to deal with so cial problems on a face-to-face level. Individuals also argue that such changes have resulted in decreased ethical responsibility. With the high

Write an annotation entry consisting of a Citation, a brief Summary, Essay - 4

Write an annotation entry consisting of a Citation, a brief Summary, and a short paragraph Evaluation of the text below - Essay Example The text is useful because it presents opportunity and resolutions for the improvement of police and community relations. Moreover, different individuals representing various institutions can participate in the discussions. Zachary Norris, the executive director of Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Ethel Long- Scott, director of women’s economic agenda project and Daniel Zapien, youth organizer, photographer and videographer at Silicon Valley De-Bug, have lengthy talks on the reasons for poverty, police and community relations. They make the text debatable since they have valid facts for discussion based mainly on poverty issues, and it is effects on police and the community. Nguyen argues that the text offers value of the importance of racial and economic justice. Besides, economic justice among various people in the community contributes to the alleviation of poverty and eventual improvement of police and the community. Therefore, support of economic power among the youth reduces idleness and rates of crime in the community. It has a positive effect on the community since police tend to execute their duties based on racial discrimination of criminals in the community. That is because youths supported economically reduce their criminal activities keeping away the police from them and the community. The text enhances understanding of the necessity to improve police and community relations. Besides, thoughtful ideas on poverty reduction promote understanding of the improvement of police and community relations. However, the text does not challenge existing condition of poverty as the main reason for the police and community disparities. In fact, poverty remains as the main reason for police great influence to the community since economic inequality. Selective justice is a notable reason for the rise in the levels of crime

The power of language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The power of language - Essay Example But writers have huge capacity to influence the outlook of people which can be used to bring about constructive changes in the social fabric. Construction of meaning In ‘Superman and Me’, Alexie has emphasized that language plays hugely critical role in the development of individuals. As an Indian, living in Washington, he was often confronted with the dual personalities of the people of his race. They were meek and unassuming in the company of Whites but otherwise exhibited their natural vivacious personality. The language was key barrier which made them hesitant in interacting with others. But writer had constructed his own language and meaning which was inspired by his passion for reading books. He has used words and language in way that defines his will to make his own space in the dissenting society. He constructed his own meaning by asserting that ‘The words inside a paragraph worked together for a common purpose’. He further clarifies that ‘Our reservation was a small paragraph within the United States’ thereby justifying his existence. Limitation of broken language Alexie has used language to understand social differences and says that ‘knowledge delighted me’. ... His success is testament of their misconceived ideas. He is now an inspiration for his race. ‘Many are writing their own poems, short stories and novels’ shows the ability to read and write English language has made Indians assert themselves as individuals. Amy Tan’s Mother Tongue is another very important article that showcases how language can overcome barriers of class, race and culture. She has used ‘all the englishes’ in her writing. This is interesting phrase because it displays the confidence of the writer to use vernacular English to communicate effectively with people whose mother tongue might not be English. The variation in English language has occurred because immigrant families have changed it to make it easy for them to use and communicate. She asserts that vernacular english ‘has become our language of intimacy’. In a foreign land, ‘the fractured language’ is ‘perfectly natural’ for immigrant to fe el comfortable. She has raised very pertinent issue of language and says that people who do not speak perfect English are deemed ‘limited’. But she also asserts that her writing has captured ‘what language ability tests can never reveal: her intent, her passion, her imagery, the rhythms of her speech and the nature of her thoughts’. The writer has shown that even ‘broken english’ has the power to communicate ideas. Conclusion Both the writers have used English as language for writing and communication. They have adopted the mainstream language to integrate as well as to understand the psychology of human relationship. The language is a means of communication and if the person is able to communicate in ‘broken english’, he has served his/her purpose: which is to transfer some idea or suggestion or

Medical marijuana and its impact on the mind, body and society Term Paper

Medical marijuana and its impact on the mind, body and society - Term Paper Example Batalla et al. (2013) and Greenwell (2012), however, asserted the negative effects of cannabis on both adolescent and adult brains. This paper is not concerned of marijuana legalization, as it assumes that the main context is that it is used in states where medical marijuana consumption is allowed. The emphasis is on cannabis’ potential effects on users and society. Medical marijuana can help some people deal with chronic pain, but it should not be widely used because it can have negative effects on the brain, which can lead to mental, academic, and social problems. Technical Overview Marijuana, also called cannabis, pertains to preparing plants that are members of the family Cannabaceae, the genus Cannabis, and the species Cannabis sativa that produce psychoactive effects (Greenwell, 2012, p.68). Marijuana has around 70 psychoactive compounds or â€Å"cannabinoids,† which include tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) that creates many of marijuana’s psychological and physi cal effects, and its content is usually connected to the potency of marijuana (Batalla et al., 2013, p.2). The part of the plants used are the flowering tops, leaves, and stalks of mature female plans, although the resinous extracts (hash) of marijuana are also used as medicine (Greenwell, 2012, p.68). ... At present, medical marijuana is used to treat chronic pain for patients with cancer, multiple sclerosis, and nerve pain, as well as depression, nausea, and vomiting (Greenwell, 2012, p.68; Martin-Sanchez, Furukawa, Taylor, & Martin, 2009, p.1353). Impacts of Medical Marijuana on Mind, Body, and Society Though some patients attested the importance of marijuana to treating symptoms or their illnesses, most studies agreed that the impact of marijuana on the human brain is under-researched enough for doctors and patients to be cautious of its widespread applications (Batalla et al., 2013; Blakemore, 2013; Block, 1996). Batalla et al. (2013) and Blakemore (2013) are highly concerned of how marijuana affects adolescent brains, especially when they are in their development stages, while Batalla et al. (2013), Block (1996), and Rapp (2013) are alarmed of the effects of long-term cannabis use on adult brains and behaviors. Batalla et al. (2013) conducted a systematic review on 43 structural and functional imaging studies on adolescent and adult chronic cannabis users, wherein these studies have matched control groups included. They defined chronic marijuana users as those who use cannabis a number of times a week and have done so for at a minimum of two years (p.2). Their findings showed that for the few studies that focused on adolescents, imaging showed structural and functional changes in their brains, where gender may have a role in these changes (Batalla et al., 2013, p.13). They stressed that adolescent female cannabis users may be at higher risk for cannabis-stimulated morphological impacts (Batalla et al., 2013, p.13). Blakemore (2013) also reviewed a study on cannabis use for adolescent brains

A New Paradigm for Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

A New Paradigm for Management - Essay Example However, it is quite possible to ignore the challenges that the organization is facing due to the failure of the firm to utilize a suitable management paradigm and practice the theories that are essential for the survival of the firm. Paradigms are very useful tools to analyze and apply concepts which are beneficial to the entire organization. It sets a standard to follow and like rules, it must be implemented to obtain order and to avoid chaos in the corporate environment. But according to William Carr written in his article "A New Paradigm for Management", he states that there are two characteristics of paradigms which must be understood, 1) they are often invisible to those who live within them, and 2) there is massive resistance to change in or abandonment of the incumbent paradigm. While it is true that a paradigm is but a mental picture of how the organization behaves, more often than not, the individuals comprising the organization is oblivious to the system of management that had been laid before them. On the other hand, the irony lies in the fact that when a change in the order of system occurs, there is a strong opposition to the new paradigm because it is viewed as a threat of disruption of the system in which the organization had established. In the Modern Management Paradigm, employee involvement is a desirable trait of a well-functioning organization. It emphasizes their contribution to the company's growth and success when they put their efforts diligently on constantly improving their task level. Lawler suggests that organizational effectiveness can be attained only by changing the ways in which organizations are managed and that the high-involvement or employee-centered management model is based on the belief that employees can be trusted to make important decisions about the management of their work.  

Current Economic Issues Essay Example for Free

Current Economic Issues Essay The current state of the world economy is attributed to economic shake ups dated from 1990s. Such happening shave extended their roots, now firmly clinching on the economy, and thus posing a threatening challenging to the whole world. Such events include the global and United States recession in 1991, Japanese economic stagnations four times since 1990s, currency crisis in European monetary system, mediocre economic performance of Europe and the large swings in the values of G3 currencies. The economy of the world had still not recovered from the 1998s global financial crisis that was caused by economic crisis in Russia. In 2001, IT bubble was experienced in US, leading to sharp fall of investment. The economic troubles challenging us today heavily rest upon the oil shock since 2000 that contributed to global slow down. To add on the pain, china appreciated its currency in 2005 by 2. 1% (Radetzki, 2003, p. 18). The above scenarios have been driving us to the destination we are today although they happened some years ago. This is because when a major economic player experiences a shock; such shock is expended to the rest of world market players, diversifying the impacts. Unemployment is getting on rise in many economies of the world, including even the giant ones. Inflation is increasing at fast rates, with United States experiencing the worst ever after the great depression. The exchange value of several currencies is getting weaker and weaker, with many stock markets closing up their ventures due to economic and financial difficulties. The industrialized economies are stake, with oil crisis holding their economies at the neck (Mullenbach, 2003, p. 20). Global economic growth 0 macroeconomic variables The above graph illustrates the trends which can be assumed by any economy, including the global economy. The long run path shows where the economy can operate at times of equilibrium, without deficits or surplus. Because of the economic forces, the trend has never been attained in history. Point A is a point of depression, C shows recovery, D is a point of economic boom and B is a recessionary trend. The world economy is subjected t all above points by the changing economic conditions of the world market and natural disasters. Today, the economy is possibly at point B, where it is at recession, but the fate is not yet known. Such a scenario is being contributed to by the nature of the economy itself, energy sector, rate of exchange, equity market and emerging markets as discussed below (Howe, 2001, p. 25). Discussion In the world economy, consumer confidence to the production sector has drastically reduced by a margin of 2. 7% since 2007, meaning that the situation is likely to get worse and worse. The recessionary experience in the United States is leading a sharp slowdown of growth in developing as well as developed nations. According to reports released by the IMF and World Bank, current and fiscal accounts of the amalgamated global economy have registered deficits since the year 2005. According to their argument, many nations like US are using weak recovery strategies that only ensure growth of output without creation of job opportunities. In 2003 and 2004, the world made a significant move against downturn, only to be fast back driven by the realization that the strategy was a jobless strategy. Through their economic monitory program, the Breton wood institutions discovered the economy was slowly healing in 2006 with low inflation and good growth, only to be stroke down by spike in oil prices. In struggling against this, the Katrina hurricane ignited its flames. The procedure of events in the world economy has led it to a hard landing especially in the years 2007 and 2008. as we talk of macro effects of the bust in the hosing sector of the united states, the world can not decouple from the effects, because US serves as a world economic hub as well as destination. Within the economic frontiers, unemployment, inflation exchange rates and growth cut rates are challenges surrounding our economic environment (Hansen, 2004, p. 12). As a matter of great concern the global energy sector has since 2004 exposed the global economy to stagflation, because of the spike in oil price. Stagflation is a scenario characterized by both inflation and recession periods. Within the range of 2004 to 2008, the oil price has been hovering around $70 per barrel. The oil crisis has been attributed to the 2000 oil price shock which affected oil importing countries negatively and led to the 2002 recession. Because of the expectation of a war in Iraq, supply shocks in Nigeria and Venezuela, oil prices went further in 2002 and 2003. After the war, the prices spiked further in 2004 and 2005 because the product remained in high demand from US and China. As a result global spare production and refining capacity has reduced as the world believed terrorism concerns in Saudi Arabia and Iraq could lead to shortages in supply. Oil is recognized as a prime mover of production sector. Production activities are essential elements making up the economy. A decline in production either quantity wise or quality wise serves as an obvious economic pitfall. Again, oil is very expensive commodity that leads to high inflation levels, a situation being experienced by the world by now. Every economy is moving fast to slow down the rates of inflation, with a big challenge coming from the instability of the oil market. Energy inflated inflation is a current which is disturbing economic strategists all over the world (Portney, 2006, p. 14). Most of the available information and data about the recent or current economic trends is availed by non governmental institutions, economically integrated institutions and Breton wood institutions. After investigating the moves of the exchange rate in the world market, the above participants have signaled a danger, due to a reflection of the reality on grounds. Exchange of an American dollar against Yen and Euro has declined, leading to large current account deficits as private savings are sinking towards zero. According to their projections, the current account deficit in global accounts may be unsustainable, lead to currency values crash or a spike in interest rates, a very hard landing for the world economy. Devastating trends in exchange rates was sensed in 2002 – 2004, when the American dollar peaked suddenly and later on sharply declined. Interest rates and real growth rates differentials favored the dollar in 2005, but it resumed its fall in 2006 as Fed pause and US slowdown was signaled. As the situation stands as per now, the dollar is expected to continue falling. This is because any global current account imbalances will be disorderly, a witnessed circumstance since 2005. The state of affairs is hardly predictable because despite the dollars instability, Yen is also weakening with china still threatening to revalue its currency. The future of the exchange pattern is still not feasible because Asian economies are declining their willingness to intervene aggressively in foreign market in the search for stable exchange value of the various currencies. As the market turmoil seemed to intimate in 2006, currency crisis in the emerging markets may be experienced. Te situation of exchange rate is not only a current issue, but issues deemed to persist and thus corner the global economy. It therefore requires a sustainability approaches to address both present and future challenges which it may poss (Radetzki, 2003, p. 18). Today’s economy is feeling the impact of the emerging markets, whose economic abilities is determining the health of the world economy. Dismissal of emerging markets took place in 2001, with economic slowdown of G7 and US. Financial crises and outright currency hardly hit Turkey, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. In 2006, commodity prices were high, global growth was high and global interest rates were low. The mess to the total progress has come after the encounter of global economy slow down, falling commodity prices, hiking oil prices, G7 short rates going up and thus making financial and economic conditions for emerging market tougher. Their turmoil in 2006 means the economies are vulnerable to financial stress up to early 2010. Both existing and emerging markets are encircled in the same economy, experiencing almost similar challenges but using different survival strategies. It must however be realized that any economic slowdown experienced by any of these entities applies to the rest of the economy. For the sake of sustainability therefore, if the stability of the whole economy has to be tamed, stability of the emerging economies must be put to focus, and thus preserve the global economy at a larger scale (Bonnie, 2003, p. 34). In consideration the present economic characteristics, it would be ignorant act to overlook the state of the equity or earnings market. Following the economic state of the United States and the world economy in general, earnings have sharply slowed down with equity markets underperforming. Based on overoptimistic and excessive expectations of growth, stock market dropped by 9/11 in 2002 when equity markets underperformed. The war that has been going on in Iraq is believed to have led to renewed risk aversion and has frequently slumped the stock market since 2003. When this war reduced shortly in 2003, markets picked up sustained economic recovery strategies accompanied with sharp pick up in earnings and profits. In 2004, 2005 and 2006, stock indexes remained flat regardless of the sharp improvement indicated in corporate balance sheet. It is too difficulty to sustain the growth of earnings, ensure profitability growth that is compatible with the share of GDP and streamline the overall trend of equity markets performance. It is a big dream to the world on how the equity market is expected to perform, its overvaluation based on historically cyclically adjusted P/E ratios. The poor performance of the US economy darkens the future of the equities markets (Howe, 2001, p. 25). In the economic dynamicity, electronic and investment cycle is worth affecting the performance of the world economy. The economy has experienced bust or boom cycle in electronic goods, semi conductors and information technology. The NASDAQ crash in 2004 led to a sharp decline in prices and demand, severely hurting IT firms. When the overinvestment boom which composed of 50% in IT rather than traditional equipment ended, it severely hurt IT exporters such as Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Philippines. The extend and depth of the tentative recovery that was started by IT sector in 2004 was too shaky because it could not maintain the demand for IT goods. In 2006, the sector was somehow relieved as the investment turned into a mini investment boom, partially healing Asians economies. This took place because tech goods underwent a pent up demand. Even if the overall poor economic performance may not solely be attached to shopped out consumers, IT strength and impact on global economy is still questionable. World Bank statistics indicate that investments in softwares and equipment have reduced since 2005. This has been the case because corporations do not find profitable real investment opportunities and therefore turning back to their old investment sites. The shake of this sector is also shaking the world economy, meaning that its stability should be sought (Portney, 2006, p. 14). Reference: Bonnie John, 2003. Contemporary economic issues in developing countries. Mahwah, NJ: Praeger, pp. 34. Hansen Alvin, 2004. Economic issues of 2000s. California: American Enterprise Institute; pp. 12. Howe Charles, 2001. Interbasin transfers of water: Economic issues and impacts. California: Resources for the future press; pp. 25. Mullenbach Philip, 2003. Civilian nuclear power: Economic issues and policy formation. London: Twentieth Century Fund; pp. 20.

The under achievement of boys in Language Learning

The under achievement of boys in Language Learning For many years, research has been carried out in the field of applied linguistics, predominantly from a psychological perspective, on the attitudes towards foreign language positioning gender issues as important in understanding attitudes towards learning (Powell Batters, 1985; Loulidi, 1990; Bacon Finnemann, 1992; Ellis, 1994; Clark Trafford, 1995, 1996), sited in Kobayashi 2002:181). Gender differences in attitudes towards learning foreign languages have been repeatedly witnessed, compelling researchers to provide an explanation for the fact by drawing attention on the ways that gender may affect ones attitude in learning a foreign language. Foreign languages in schools have been rendered as the subject in which the disparity between girls and boys performance is at its greatest (Barton (2002), sited in Murphy 2010:81). Considerable international data has emerged (Field, 2000; Chavez, 2001; Carr and Pauells, 2006), illustrating that achievement and participation in foreign languages in schools seems to be predominantly the domain of girls (Murphy, 2010). The underachievement of boys in language learning, the low participation of boys in foreign language modules as well the negative attitudes of boys towards the learning of a language has led in research trying to identify the underlying reasons. The gender gap noticed in performance on foreign languages at an international level (Murphy, 2010), has led in gender to be considered other than the socioeconomic background of students, also an important factor in understanding the attitudes of both girls and boys in learning foreign languages at school. This paper seeks to explore and bring together the various factors affecting boys attitudes towards the learning of a language. It attempts to understand why foreign language learning may be experiencing a particular delineation of participation and achievement along gender lines and to raise awareness of the issue of boys and foreign language learning. Moreover, this paper shall draw attention on the various methods that teachers could employ in order to motivate boys and raise their involvement and achievement. Boys and foreign language learning Nowadays, due to an enormous amount of statistical information it is widely accepted that boys perform less well than girls in all kinds of schools with the greatest gap found in foreign languages (Murphy, 2010). Davies (2004) points out that researchers over the past decade (Barton, 2002; Jones Jones, 2002; Clark Trafford, 1996) have noted, in particular, that the disparity in performance between boys and girls is significantly greater in modern languages than in other areas of the curriculum. The option of learning a foreign language is not taken seriously by boys in schools with the majority of them refusing it or not fully becoming engaged with it (Murphy, 2010). Clark (1998) and Chavez (2001) argue that in reality, from the moment foreign language study becomes optional and as the study of foreign languages become more advanced in school systems, classrooms across the English language dominant communities of the world are inhabited primarily by girls(Murphy, 2010:81). Data tak en from the UK, Australia and New Zealand shows the low participation of boys in foreign language learning. At advanced levels of foreign language learning in schools across these countries boys only count 24-38% of all students with an average of only 33% of male participation (Muprhy, 2010). In the UK specifically, the gender-gap in achievement among several subjects has been recognized by the government which in the Standards for Qualified Teacher Status has made explicit reference of the distinctive needs of boys and girls (Murphy, 2010) leading in teachers having as one of their main targets the development of strategies to respond to the different needs (Davies, 2004). It has been noticed that boys in the UK educational system generally have less favourable attitudes towards foreign language learning than girls and are less likely to take a language in a public examination (Pritchard, 1987:65). Davies (2004), points out that in 2000 the average size of the gender gap across subjects (i.e. girls results minus boys) was 9.2%, which prompted headlines such as Girls stay top of the class in GCSEs (Guardian) and GCSE results reveal that boys are failing to close the gender gap (Independent). The GCSE results in 2001 and 2002 have shown that the gender gap across all subje cts is persisting at 9% with a higher figure of 15.6% in modern languages indicating that boys are underperforming more severely in this subject; a phenomenon also confirmed by the Nuffield Languages Inquiry (Davies 2004). For example, in 2000, statistics showed 44% of boys achieved grades A*-C in French whereas 60% of girls achieved those marks. Comparable results were found in German with 49% of boys achieving Grades A*-C compared to 63% of girls in the same year (Davies, 2004). Bradford and Noble (2000) point out that an examination of the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) results as well as A-levels confirms that girls do far better than boys in foreign languages. Davies (2004) argues that if GCSE results serve as an indicator of linguistic performance that means that although statistics have shown some progress since 1992, the gender gap remains wide. In all secondary school subjects, modern languages are the most likely to be dropped by boys at key stage 4, being the least popular amongst the other subjects (Bradford Noble 2000). Main Concerns The above facts have led in a considerable amount of concern to be expressed about the underachievement of boys in various subjects, especially foreign languages (Williams et al. 2002). As we enter the next millennium, it is the underachievement of boys that has become one of the biggest challenges facing society today (Wragg (1997), sited in Williams et al. 2002:508). A major concern is that due to the increasing disproportion between the percentage of girls and boys taking public examination in the five most popular languages taught in the UK (Powell 1979; Hawkins 1981) the profession of language teaching is becoming increasingly feminized (Pritchard, 1987). According to Pritchard (1987), this is also a matter of concern as it means that fewer and fewer boys are likely to be available for training as future language teachers, a fact which makes it increasingly possible that boys will be taught predominantly by women teachers (Pritchard, 1987: 65). In turn this is more likely to enhance the perception of boys that languages are a girl subject contributing in the maintenance of a vicious circle leading in boys underachievement in languages (Pritchard, 1987). This leads in further concerns arising as language learning may be seen as a key component in pursuing the objectives of co-operation between states, respect for the identity of others and the promotion of mutual understanding (Moys (1998), sited in Williams et al. 2002:508). According to Graddol (1997), we move into an era where peoples future will need to be based on multilingualism therefore such a situation has severe consequences (Williams et al., 2002). The Nuffield Inquiry points to the need for foreign languages in the new century from a European perspective, from a business stance, and because of the rising need for international communication and highlights the fact that many employees in Europe can speak a second, third and fourth language. Speaking English alone will not be enough to ensure a full and productive participation in the 21st Century (Graddol (1997), sited in Williams et al., 2002). Moreover, Williams et al. (2002) point out that both the Department for Trade and Industry (DTI) and the Nuffield Inquiry indicate that there is a need for foreign language as the lack of it has been a major barrier in business. The Nuffield Inquiry identifies that there is an inadequate supply of language skills available to industry across a range of languages and points out that UK companies are more deficient in linguistic and cultural competence than their major European competitors. It recommends that in order to promote international understanding and contribute to economic success the government should show commitment in setting a national policy agenda for languages and enhance international dimension in education (Williams et al., 2002). Reviewing the reasons To be able to deal with these issues one (either that is the government, school or teachers) must be aware of the personal, interpersonal and external factors leading in boys opting out or underachieving in foreign language learning. As according to the Office of National Statistics (1999) girls consistently outperform boys both in GCSE and A-Levels in modern languages there must be mainly gender differences that cause this consistency. Muprhy (2010) argues that efforts to understand and to explain the effect of gender on language learning, and in this case in particular foreign-language learning, can generally be categorised into the traditional binary structure of either nature or nurture (Murphy, 2010:89). According to Murphy (2010), differences in language learning between girls and boys may be attributed to two positions namely, the essentialist and anti-essentialist position. The essentialist position contends that there are innate and inherent brain differences between females and males, which result in different language learning abilities for the two sexes (Young and Brozo (2001), sited in Murphy, 2010). According to the essentialist position, linguistic information goes directly to the seat of language processing in the female brain, whereas males use sensory machinery to do a great deal of work in untangling linguistic data resulting in more inefficient processing of language (Murphy, 2010:89). As per this perspective girls are qualified with possessing other innate characteristics that give them advantage in foreign language classes i.e. enhanced aural, oral and memory skills as well as social and collaborative learning styles, intrinsic motivation and concentration (Murphy, 2010). Cecco and Shaw (2008), point out that according to brain research brains develop differently according to gender even before we are born, with females having more language centres and males having more visuo-spatial centres. Moreover, they point out that there are three preferred ways of learning i.e. auditory, visual and kinaesthetic, with the visual and kinaesthetic learners processing information mainly from the right side of the brain, the dominant side in boys learning. According to Noble et al. (2001), verbal and linguistic intelligence required for language learning is linked to the auditory learning the weakest style in boys (Cecco and Shaw, 2008). The anti-essentialist position holds a socio-cultural perspective contending that gender is about socially constructed maleness and femaleness and the performance of same (Murphy, 2010). Carr and Pauwels (2006) argue that it is generally accepted that enduring hegemonic versions of masculinity in society accord little importance to the oracy skills, personal expression, disclosure, introspection, exploration and literate practices, which form the bedrock of foreign language classroom practice (Carr and Pauwels (2006), sited in Murphy, 2010:89). According to this perspective, language classrooms therefore involve ways of working and learning, which contradict the dominant versions of masculinity, that frame many males out-of-school experience (Gilbert and Gilbert 1998; Hall and Coles 2001, sited in Murphy, 2010). As males of school-going age experience particular pressure to be accepted, to conform and to perform hegemonic versions of masculinity many males will avoid, dismiss and rej ect peer-disdained activities (Rankin et al., 2004) of which foreign language is one, with the resulting consequences for relative male participation and achievement (Murphy, 2010). According to Cecco and Shaw (2008), the factors for gender differences explained by nurture cover various learned attitudes and behaviours that seem often to be modelled unconsciously. Minns (1991) argues that social and cultural attitudes about gender are learnt from birth and are modelled and reinforced, often unconsciously, by parents and other significant adults, including teachers (Minns 1991, sited in Cecco and Shaw 2008:11). Bleach (1998) also argues that socialisation towards particular roles takes place based on the adult version of appropriate behaviour (Cecco and Shaw, 2008). According to Barton (1997), differentiation between the sexes from birth is inevitable and important as our identity is determined by the knowledge of our sex. Most parents encourage behaviours appropriate to the childs gender e.g. males are expected to be more noisy and adventurous whereas girls are supposed to be passive and dependent to others. The toys and games given to children nature the characteristics conforming each gender. e.g. cars and building kits foster creativity and spatial awareness whereas dolls, teady bears or domestic appliances such as cookers mostly resemble human or animal life (Barton, 1997). Therefore, Barton (1997) argues that if we consider the prerequisites for language learning, it becomes clear that girls toys, promoting human contact and communication, give them [girls] an immediate advantage over boys (Barton, 1997:11). Moreover, it is argued that role models in the home have an influence in the childs life and ways of learning (Barton, 1997). The male figure model is more practical and goes out to work daily whereas the female prepares meals, takes care of the children and doesnt work so hard. Even where children live in an environment which does not conform to domestic norms they may be influenced by those stereotypes through the media. Therefore, their learning is also influenced as girls are meant to sit down and abuse their brains whereas boys are meant to move around. (Barton, 1997) Furthermore, studies have showed that both parents and teachers interactions with children can either consciously or otherwise endorse the different approaches of the two sexes to language use (Barton, 1997). Fagots (1977) study revealed that teachers interactions with girls were more verbal whereas they tended to join in with boys play (Barton, 1997). Boys unwillingness to listen to others as well as the challenge required by them in order to get motivated do not enable them to perform well in language learning as the lesson makes demands of them that are inconsistent with the linguistic role normally expected of them by the society (Barton, 1997). Moreover, peer pressure is considered to be an important social factor affecting the attitudes of boys towards learning a language. Youngs research (1994) offers much in support of the view that learner perceptions and experience of peer attitudes concerning school, education, foreign language learning in general or the learning of a particular language in question may exert considerable influence on the individuals own FLL orientation, attitudes and motivation (Bartram, 2006:47). Also, Walqui (2000) argues that teenage peer pressure usually has a negative effect on language learning due to the performance element involved in this learning which may provoke feelings of insecurity and embarrassment (Bartram, 2006). According to Barton (1997) male adolescents will, no doubt, find it much more difficult than females to relinquish their hold on their primary means of communication and expose their breaking voices to their peers ridicule (Barton, 1997:12).The fact that males have a need t o show off and be thought as successful does not allow them to get involved with something that would make them feel insecure or embarrassed. Boys [] think success is sad, and that image is all-important (Hofkins, (1995), siten in Barton, 1997:12). In addition, peer group pressure is considered be a key reason for the demotivation of boys in learning languages as according to Court (2001) boys need to assert their emerging sexual identity (Bartram, 2006). Due to the feminised associations of language learning boys usually reject it or do not get involved with it. Barton (1997) argues that making clear ones sexual identity and appearing one of the lads is, it seems, foremost in the male adolescent mind and is often achieved by appearing uninterested and boasting of missed homework (Barton, 1997:12). In their momentous study of psychological research published, Jacklin and Macoby (1974) came to the conclusion that boys are more susceptible to peer pressure than girls with teachers and advisors investigating male underachievement coming up with remarkably similar findings (Barton, 1997). The fact that boys need to assert their sexual identity can be supported by studies into attitudes and motivation towards learning different languages in the UK. Chambers reported a differential rise in the number of students entering for GCSE examinations in French (4%) and German (22%) between 1991 and 1994 (Williams et al., 2002). Philips and Filmer-Sankeys (1993) findings showed that the majority of pupils of both sexes preferred learning German to learning French and that more boys than girls showed an interest in learning German. According to Barton (1997), this is due to the fact that German has a masculine image and is viewed as more useful by boys for industry and commerce. Interviews of students have revealed that French is considered feminine and not cool for boys to make an effort in learning French (Williams et al., 2002). In the popular imagination French would be associated with fine wines, good cooking, haute couture and luxurious perfumes all either domestic or feminine in orientation [whereas] German language is associated in pupils minds with masculine-type imagery such as war, harshness, strictness, shouting, the Nazis and Hitler (Pritchard, 1987:65). The fact that French is considered as feminine is considered to contribute in the low motivation and achievement of boys in French as they do not wish to harm their image and sexual identity. Furthermore, the fact that the most popular and widely taught language in the UK is French is particularly offputting boys who are far less inclined than girls to see French as useful to them in a future job or course of study (Powell and Littlewood, 1983) (Pritchard, 1987). Moreover, there has been evidence to suggest that boys rate French as more difficult (Clark Trafford, 1996), less important (Powell Batters, 1985) and less relevant to their future lives than girls (Pritchard, 1987) (Court, 2001:7). Stables and Wikeley (1999) found that other reasons putting boys off involve the belief that modern languages are difficult and that they are not required for international communication. Although science and mathematics may also be considered as difficult, boys view the effort as necessary due to the importance of the qualification. Stables and Wikeley (1999) point out that Employers do not, in general, require GCSE in a modern language; to be more exact, pupils seem little aware that they might. Thus the difficulty that many pre-GCSE pupils seem to find with modern foreign languages is not offset in many cases by the belief that the effort is really worthwhile (Stables and Wikeley, 1999:30). Moreover, Stables and Wikeley (1999) argue that in the UK where the home language is also the dominant international language, motivation to learn is inevitably less than in countries where failure to speak other languages is seen as severely personally limiting. As members of a national cultur e with strong international standing, pupils may also lack motivation in the form of curiosity about other national cultures (Stables and Wikeley, 1999). What also seems to de-motivate male students in learning foreign languages is the lesson content itself as well as the assessment methods used. Barton (1997) points out that features of the language lesson may seem as a threat to male identity. Reading fictional novels, that is considered as a feminine activity, puts boys off as they prefer informative texts such as newspapers, articles and comics; a thing which needs to be bared in mind by teachers and educators. Moreover, as dialogue is crucial in learning a language, boys usually hesitate to get involved as dialogues indicate vulnerability (Barton, 1997). Boys usually hesitate to ask for directions or corrections. In an investigation into patterns of interactions in foreign language classes, Sunderland (1998) found that even if boys did talk more, the girls exhibited more sophisticated interactions, and actively created learning opportunities for themselves and took advantage of those the teacher provided them with (Sunderland (19 98), sited in Williams et al. 2002:508) Furthermore, due to the fact that boys from a young age are not taught to sit still and listen but to search for the experience, they are unable to concentrate on language tasks, leading in teachers complaining about boys attitude in the classroom (Barton, 1997). Moreover, Jones and Jones (2001) have found that boys see modern languages as different from other subjects mainly because of the central position of the teacher in the language classroom and that boys who are underperforming tend to see the teacher as responsible for the difficulties they are having because the pedagogy of modern languages is so teacher-centred ( Cecco and Shaw, 2008:7). In addition, Cecco and Shaw (2008) point out that boys attributes are not particularly favoured by the requirements of coursework, i.e. sustained effort, process as well as outcome and often a considerable amount of well-presented written work. Although exams themselves may suit boys sudden bursts of effort, national awards in recent years have incorporated increased amounts of coursework. However, Arnot et al. (1998) argue that fairness to all learners involves a variety of assessment modes so that all pupils have opportunities to produce their best performance (Cecco Shaw, 2008). Other factors that seem to contribute in the underachievement of boys include the sex of the teacher as well as teacher expectations. As mentioned in the previous section most language teachers are females and this is considered to perpetuate the myth that languages are feminine subjects. However, Clark and Traffords recent survey showed that students ascribed more importance to teachers personalities than to their sex and many boys in Powell and Batters study preferred a female teacher because it contributed to their overall perception of languages as an easy, non-serious subject (Barton, 1997). On the other hand it is argued that a boy who is susceptible to peer pressure (found most commonly in the weaker sets) will not be highly motivated to set himself apart from his fellows and affiliate himself with a subject dominated by feminine connotations (Barton, 1997: 13). In addition, the fact that the gender-gap in language learning is widely acknowledged as well as boys attitudes towards the subject often leads in teachers being either consciously or unconsiously biased towards their students. Although there is not much evidence to support this it is argued that teachers will focus their attention on the girls, assuming that the boys will not be interested in continuing their study of a feminine subject (Barton, 1997:14). This leads in enhancing both their belief that foreign languages are feminine and their negative attitudes towards the language. Raising boys achievement The above factors discussed lead into boys being de-motivated to learn the language resulting in their underachievement. The findings of a group of PGCE students at Goldsmiths College conducting interviews in two schools to ask boys why they thought girls did better at Modern Languages predictably showed poor motivation as a key factor: Us boys dont take it seriously. Some days, I just think oh its French today and I aint going to try very hard if I dont want. (Harris, 1998:57) Cecco and Shaw (2008) point out that motivation is a central component to successfully acquire knowledge and that lack of motivation can hinder learning whereas being motivated can greatly enhance it. Particularly welcome is the assumption that motivation can be increased or decreased; that it is not a unitary characteristic of which learners have a lot or a little (Cecco and Shaw, 2008:6) The issue of motivation has always been on the agenda in language learning. In order to raise boys motivation educators and teachers need to be aware of the motivational conditions identified by psychologists and also have an insight into the ways boys learn in order to modify the classroom context to meet boys learning needs. According to Cecco and Shaw (2008), three sets of motivational conditions identified by Dornyei (1994) have also been found useful for providing a framework for the classroom context. These are a) course-specific motivational components which relate to the motivational influence of the syllabus, teaching materials, teaching methods and learning activities, b) teacher-specific motivational components which relate to the teacher-pupil relationship, the teachers approach to the management of behaviour, the promotion of the sharing of ideas between pupils as well as between teacher and pupils and the provision of motivating feedback and c)group-specific motivational components which relate to the dynamics of the learning group, its participation in collaboration, its shared goals and shared norms of behaviour (Cecco and Shaw, 2008). As far as how boys learn, Hannan (1996) offers an insight into the typical boy learner and cites the following characteristics. Boys are doers first and thinkers second, they have a shorter concentration span, they get easily bored, they have weaker listening and verbal skills as well as social and collaborative skills, they have less ability to organize and plan work, they are highly influenced by their peer group and they seek immediate gratification. In the following paragraphs, by having in mind the reasons for boys underachievement, the motivational conditions and the ways in which boys learn, various ways that could help raise their motivation shall be discussed. Although as has been discussed social norms to a great extend seem to affect boys attitudes towards language learning, some steps could be made on the part of teachers in order to enhance boys motivation and achievement. According to Ofsted (2003), improving the achievement of boys is a complex matter in which interlinked factors play important parts including a positive learning ethos, good teaching and classroom management, close monitoring of individuals and effective support for learning. Ofsted (2003) argues that these factors are significant in all schools and are relevant to girls as well as boys (OfSTED, 2003). It must be noted that the strategies suggested should not disadvantage the learning of girls but to incorporate them so that they enhance boys participation and involvement. Taken that boys underachieve in languages, due to the fact that they are considered to be feminine, teachers should encourage an atmosphere that would raise boys will to participate. Boys perceive languages as feminine as they consider girls to be better at them and as the majority of them consider typical topics like wine, cooking and haute couture to be feminine in orientation (Pritchard, 1987:69) What can be done, therefore, is to provide challenging exercises and integrate materials that attract boys attention such as articles, newspapers and comics (Noble and Bradford, 2000). As boys like challenge, challenging activities shall get them involved e.g. giving them team quizzes about the set texts and marry this with competition. Moreover, as boys tend to read non-fiction, including articles that involve sports, technology or hobbies would probably lead to more commitment to reading by boys. Increasing the choice of reading resources available in the language classroom is essential , as this would show consideration of boys preferences. Diversity in the materials used is required to meet both the needs of boys and girls (Noble and Bradford, 2000). Moreover, although language teachers are usually biased, they should not allow this to let them treat boys differently from girls. By devoting their attention to girls assuming boys are uninterested in the learning of the language would have indirect implications for boys achievement as less attention would mean less language opportunities (Court, 2001). Even though studies (Spencer, 1998) have found that boys receive around 2/3 of teachers attention during class much of it is negative as it arises from discipline problems appearing to receive less praise than girls (Harris, 1998). Harris argues that insensitive feedback may serve only to foster the macho image that boys are tough and you dont need to worry about hurting their feelings (Harris, 198:61). Instead teachers should encourage the participation of boys into the lesson and praise them for their involvement without harming their image. However, Harris (1998) suggests that due to the nature of peer pressure this should not alw ays be praised in front of the class as it may not be seen as cool but should also be done also on an individual basis either on an individual basis or positive comments on homework. Without it boys shall remain unmotivated, behave badly and produce poor quality work, becoming even more convinced that they are not good at languages and feel justified by making even less effort. In addition, teachers should allow boys to do things rather than being more teacher-centered. According to Harris (1998), this would give them more flexibility to really adapt things to their way of learning. Graham and Rees (1995) suggest that boys need to have some sense of control because by learning what they feel they need to know in a way that is appropriate for them accelerates their learning (Harris, 1998). The Ofsted report Boys and English (1993) concluded that boys performance improves when they have a clear understanding of the progress they need in order to achieve (Harris, 1998). Harris (1998) suggests that clear and explicit guidelines should be given to boys in order to help them progress and that it is not enough to offer pupils greater independence in their learning. Teachers should also equip them with the tools or strategies that will enable them to go about it. Nunan (1995) points out it is a mistake to assume that learners come into the language classroom with a natural ability to make choices about what and how to learn (Numan (1995), sited in Harris, 1998:58). OMalley and Chamot (1990) identify three types of strategies that the teachers should help the boys to develop; metacognitive strategies which deal with planning and evaluating learning, cognitive strategies which deal with grappling directly with the language itself and social and affective strategies through whic h the learner interacts with others or controls their own emotional response to the learning situation (Harris, 1998). According to Ofsted (1993), female students use more learning strategies than males and use them more often therefore it is important for teachers to intervene systematically with some strategy instruction to enable boys to develop their learning strategies (Harris, 1998). By developing these strategies boys shall be able to control their own learning. Rather than feeling that there is nothing they can do about their lack of success other than give up, it makes explicit what can be done to improve and locates the responsibility firmly on them (Harris, 1998:59). In addition, we have noted earlier that boys tend to like audio-visual work. Incorporating the use of computers in the language classroom would not only be see

The Political Communication Of India

The Political Communication Of India In the early years of Indian Independence political communication was considered to be addressing peaceful rallies and dropping election pamphlets from a plane to persuade the Indian Voter. The post liberalization has already seen three paradigm shifts, Firstly the Nehruvian Socialism in the 1960s, then the hard lined discipline of Indira Gandhi and economic freedom in the 1990s. the liberalization of the Indian economy has changed the way of communication ranging from cable television to telecommunication and then bringing on to the online platform. Earlier the communication during elections used to take place in rallies and depended a lot on politicians interpersonal skills. But the political parties are soon realizing the importance of this Digital Era to connect with the youth of the country. The Political parties know that the youth are going in the transformation from Digital Migrants to Digital Natives. They are present with their true identities on the Digital platform. This requires the political parties of India to adopt methods which have been never adopted before. In the recently hard fought Lok Sabha Elections of 2009, all major political parties of India had hired Ad and Media Agencies to manage their Brand Image. Understanding Political Communication Political communication is a sub-field of political science and communication that deals with the production, dissemination, procession and effects of information, both through media and interpersonally, within a political context. This includes all usage of Media, speeches by politicians, Opinion leaders in the community to influence the decision process and it also includes the formal and informal discussions in the general public. The Study of Political Communication revolves around 3 basic elements. The Political Party The Voter The Medium of communication The Political Party As per the Ace Electoral Network, A political party is defined as an organised group of people with at least roughly similar political aims and opinions, that seeks to influence public policy by getting its candidates elected to public office. Political parties perform key tasks in a democratic society, such as Aggregating and articulating needs and problems as identified by members and supporters Socialising and educating voters and citizens in the functioning of the political and electoral system and the generation of general political values Balancing opposing demands and converting them into general policies Activating and mobilising citizens into participating in political decisions and transforming their opinions into viable policy options Channelling public opinion from citizens to government To perform these above mentioned key tasks, the political party should be able to communicate their objective clearly to their Voters. With the increase in the number of mediums a party can use to communicate with their voter, a consistency in the communication objective should be must. Communication objective is derived from the Brand Proposition the party wants to display to the general public. Harrop (1990) perceives political marketing as being not just about political advertising, party political broadcasts and electoral speeches but covering the whole area of party positioning in the electoral market. Maarek (1995) conceptualises political marketing as a complex process, the outcome of a more global effort implicating all the factors of the politicians political communication. Maarek explained the Difference between commercial marketing and political marketing. Figure 1: Commercial and Political Marketing, two parallel strategies. In the above figure Maarek tries to point out the difference between Commercial Marketing and Political Marketing. Such a parallel cannot be drawn, as a partys product consists not of its political communications but of: a) Its ideological platform and its set of policy proposals. b) The party leader, the candidates and party officials. In Maareks view, political marketing has become an integral and vital component of political communication. In his words: Political communicationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦encompasses the entire marketing process, from preliminary market study to testing and targeting. The Voter The aim of any type of communication is to convince the receiver. All marketers try to convince their customers about the product. Here the marketer is the political party and the customer is the voter. But there are certain differences between mainstream marketing and political marketing with respect to the voter. Lock and Harris (1996) identify four main differences between mainstream and political marketing: All voters vote on the same day, everyone makes choice as per their own methods or requirements There is no cost attached to casting a mandate for a particular party, therefore no cost when considered from an individual point of view but a very huge cost from a societys point of view. Even though you must have voted for a particular party, even though its not elected ,you will have to live with it. There is no choice to vote for a political party or the candidate, basically the service given is unbundled. The candidate and the political party both are generally taken into consideration while making the choice. The main role of PR activities is to improve the perception of the political party or the candidate. Today political parties are involved highly in PR activities during elections; the Bhartiya Janata Party had the India Shining campaign in 2004 which triggered a new PR era in Indian Politics. The Congress party ran the Secular campaign successfully in 2009. No political party has left any stone unturned in the field of PR, whether it is print or television or even digital. The Indian Voter today is exposed to a minimum of three different kinds of medium in a day, it is important to reach out to this person when its most effective. It is very difficult to improve the perception of the candidate or the party in a short term; it requires a long term perspective with a consistent proposition to the voter. The Medium The early beginnings of democratic thought in the eighteenth century, political philosophers have recognized the crucial role of un-inhibited public debate and free speech, which was later, extended to the demand for a free press (Voltmer, 2007)The notion of a marketplace of ideas is based on the liberal belief that no single agency be allowed to have the last say on the course of politics. Rather, it is through public exchange of argument and counter-argument that the truth eventually emerges (Mill 1859, reprinted 1974). From the perspective of the marketplace of ideas argument, the media are usually assigned a more passive role, serving as a forum where a variety of groups and individuals are given the opportunity to express their views. Arguably the mass media serve as the main link between governments, political parties, candidates, etc. and voters, as the opportunities for direct communication between citizens and their representatives are extremely limited both in terms of the scale of the audience reached and the scope of the issues covered. However, the media are not just channels conveying the messages politicians want them to communicate to voters. They are also active participants in the creation of political messages (Cook 1998). In a democracy like India, The medium of communication is the single most important factor through which political parties reach out to the people. Political Speeches, coverage, events are all part of the medium of communication. Even hate speeches, rally by political parties only make sense if they are reported by the print or the television medium. In the print there are articles that report the unfolding of different events through the day, the television has live screening of interviews and events. As film stars became popular figures in Indian politics, movies became an important medium of political communication. This all is the part of the medium through which political marketing talks place. Today the digital medium is yet another medium which cannot be ignored by any political party. Blogs, Social media, websites, email, viral marketing and websites itself has brought about a paradigm shift in ways political parties could present itself to the voter. The print and television mediums are generally active only during election campaigns but the digital medium is generally active all through the year. The Digital Medium: The Game Changer Not so long ago, Television and Print were the mainstays of most marketers media plans with radio and outdoor and a few other things filling in the gaps where appropriate. Even with the emergence of the internet in the late nineties television commercials were heavily favored by the dotcoms as the way to build their brands. The internet is now over a decade, its certainly isnt new .In fact, any product that advertised itself as new ten years on would be laughed at or even sued by the authorities . Today Digital channels are mass and mainstream reaching global audiences. For example in some markets, a popular website can reach a staggering part of the population. Its not just the big portals or social networking sites that command large audiences. Perez Hilton, the web king reaches an estimated 5 million people daily via the blog. (David Meerman ,2004) While digital channels are now mass, they can also be extremely targeted allowing for singular interactions with consumers. This is one of the defining benefits of new media. Marketing through the digital platform can be extremely personalized in many ways. Personal Emails or SMSes might be tailor made to suit every individual needs. They can be content differentiation also, as different mailers could be sent to different individuals based on their likes and dislikes. New Media are essentially social. Everything in digital format can be easily replied to by everyone. The best part of digital medium, that it can be viral. Any exciting piece of communication through the digital medium can be easily replicated and produced in the same form. There are basically two types of Digital Marketing. The first one is the pull strategy and the second is the push strategy. The pull strategy basically consists of attracting consumers/visitors to a particular website or a blog or even watching a video (youtube). Here the initiative is on the consumer to visit the particular digital platform. The pull strategy requires a substantial marketing budget as the numbers of competitors are more. Also the pull strategy does not allow you to be personalized to the user, as the same content is viewed by all viewers. The push strategy basically consists of sending emails and SMSes to the target audiences. The push strategy could be extremely personalized, for example a polit ical party could send in different SMSes to people of a region affected by floods and a different message to people affected by Naxal issues. Use of Internet as a Political Communication Tool The internet is a perfect example of customer centricity in political communication. The internet acts as a one stop platform for people to interact with politicians, discuss their problems. The primary problem in India was that people were finding it tough to connect with politicians except during elections when politicians wanted their mandate. The internet as a platform itself can act as a connection tool for the people with the politicians. But internet is not utilized to its true potential; internet is often seen as a tool to spread awareness about a politician or a political party. (David Meerman ,2004) Before the internet platform emerged, it was believed that the people would go to the administration for help or issues, but the internet could give way to a system which would bring the government and political parties to the people. The focus of the internet could be to generate efficiency in the system which will indirectly benefit the government. But the important thing with the internet is that the tool works best when the consumer uses it for a dialogue and not a monologue. Online tools There are a variety of tools available today for use of political communication. These tools are generally used by the people for entertainment or networking purposes. These tools can consist of blogs, social networking sites, news sites, video streaming and group sites. These tools can be used by have great political applicability. These tools can be used to generate public attention and also to act as points of salience. The internet is generally open systems and are accessible all public. The internet today has no dependency on computers as the internet can be accessed through mobiles. Every tool present on the web today has a specific use and can be used to target niche audiences. Importance of youth in elections The analysts believe that the segment of youth would be the most critical in the forthcoming elections. Unfortunately this segment has registered a dismal participation in the elections upto this point. This segment of youth is identified as being rationale and will be having the capability of taking decisions. This segment can easily identify the right and wrong between things, they understand the importance to cast votes in elections too; the only thing that is lacking is a platform to connect with this target audience. The political parties today should be involved in giving out communication messages which are more relevant in times of today. The youth of today feel that they are disconnected with politics just because of the lack of use of appropriate communication tools by the political parties. That is why it is very important to understand the consumption of messages by this segment. Understanding the Psyche of the Indian youth in Elections The Indian youth is one of the largest segments of the Indian Society; they surpass any other segments present in the Indian Voting Canvas. In the recent Lok Sabha elections of 2009, the voting percentage among the youth was an abysmal 20%. The influencers in the case of youth are their parents, if the parents decide to cast their vote then the youth generally follow them otherwise they dont cast their vote. Most of the youth today does not find it intriguing enough to talk about politics, the trend is slowly changing but it is still an urban phenomenon. Most of the youth today look at the Election Day as a holiday; they generally plan out long weekend holidays on account of election days. The youth of today believe in the saying Be the change, they volunteer to NGOs and help other organization, they firmly deem that rather than relying on politicians or political parties, they themselves take the onus of changing the landscape of this country. Generally Youth does not cast their vote on the pretext of saying that their vote does not make a difference. The youth of today in the range of 20- 25 years, have seen all the major political parties at the centre (1996 2009), so the feeling of nothing changing in the Indian Landscape is pretty evident. The youth also believe in the fact that they have never been asked to vote. When researched this led to the vicious cycle phenomenon in Indian Politics, the Indian urban segment and youth are the two segments which generally registers the lowest amount of voting percentages. This is the primary reason why politicians and political parties pay very less or no attention to them. Due to no attention to them the youth do not get any personalized or communication that makes relevance to their life during election days. Many youth of today feel that the process of casting votes is a tedious one, as one never know how to register and when and where to vote. Before the Jaago re campaign, th ere was no particular online platform which educated the youth about the process of casting votes. Need and Rationale for the Study Changing voter profile of the country The voter profile of this country is fast changing, the faster the political parties adopt the change, better will be the results for the political party in the Long run. Media fragmented As the media of today is getting more and more fragmented, the traditional means of reaching the voter might not work, and innovative means of reaching the same voter might be needed. Americanization of Politics in India Learning from the recently concluded Americas Presidential elections, the use of social media had been used exhaustively along with other online tools. This can pave the way of the changing political propaganda as it takes place today Research Design Literature Review Knowledge and Learnings Content Analysis of Websites Conclusion/ Recommendation Learnings Expert Interviews Research Objectives Following are the research objectives: To analyze and compare the websites of different political parties and understand their offering in the digital medium To analyze the different promotional activities done by political parties on the digital platform. Research Methodology Information gathered through data published, websites, reports. The books and articles for reference would be sourced from the KEIC library of Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad In -Depth interviews would be conducted with professionals from the digital marketing industry and the people responsible for PR of political parties. Content Analysis of Websites would be done of the websites of the major political parties of India The content analysis of websites will be done on several labels like Information on the website, Informing the people, engagement with people, appeal to people , media releases given on the website and transparency achieved by the website Content Analysis in general is conducted in several discrete stages. Although the following stages are given in sequence, they need not be followed in the same order. Formulate the research question : Analyzing and comparing websites of different political parties in India ( Four national parties are taken in the consideration set) Define the population in question: The population would be all the data that is available on the internet about these political parties. Select an appropriate sample from the population: The sample for population would be the websites of these parties. (Official websites) Select and define a unit of analysis: The unit of analysis would be the pages on the website. Each page would be analysed from the website. The units would be : Information of the web site Interaction with People Appeal to the people Service to the people Media Coverage and Public Relations Transparency Sampling A panel of experts from the digital marketing industry would be chosen with their political knowledge in mind. For selecting the panel snowball sampling would be used The sample for selection of websites would be of the four national political parties of India Research Questions Some sample questions which would be asked to the panel of experts would be as follows How important do you feel is the online platform in todays age for political parties? Describe what is the appropriate time for political parties to use the online platform? Where is the online platform best likely to fit in the entire process of political propaganda? Could you tell us some campaigns which u liked/disliked by political parties? What would be the extent of use of online platform in political campaigns, five years down the line? Limitations Confidential information would be withheld as the topic of research is sensitive subject which is politics Data Collection The data collection was done in two phases for the Four National Parties of India. This was decided by the number of seats won by each of these parties in the recently concluded General Elections. The initial data was collected on January 5 January 7 2010. This data was recorded in an Excel sheet based on the selected variables. After this interviews were taken with the Media / PR heads o the respective political parties. This helped me in cross checking and validating their claims about the website and also to help me fill in gaps during my initial collection. Also a link analysis was done to check the traffic for these websites during the election period, as these links are more active during election periods. Data and Analysis The research would be done on the following websites: National Party Website URL Indian National Congress (INC) http://www.congress.org.in/ http://www.congress4india.com/ Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) http://www.bjp.org/ http://www.bjpindia.in/ Samajwadi Party (SP) http://www.samajwadipartyindia.com/ http://www.spmumbai.org/index.aspx Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) http://bspindia.org/ http://www.bahujansamajparty.net/ The Research was done on two websites of each political party. The first data collection was carried out on January 5 January 7 2010 and the second data collection was done between February 5 February 7 2010. The purpose was to find if the websites were updated. In all cases however the content was not changed. Findings of the Research The political parties have yet not realized the importance of the updates of the websites. They did not update the sites on a day to day basis, although it is technologically possible to update the contents in real time today. The sites of the Indian National Congress and the Bhartiya Janata Party are more updated than the Samajwadi Party and Bahujan Samaj Party. There are more than 32 features on the INC website put together compared to 29 of the BJP party. The Samajwadi party and BSP havent updated their sites since a very long time; they have far less features than compared to the counterparts. The better contents and updates in the BJP site could be attributed to the experience of the BJP elections n 20004. New Media including internet was used extensively during the elections of 2004. BJP has hired a New Media agency for handling only their New Media campaigns in 2009. INC lagged behind in the use of internet during the elections so far and appeared to have attempted to catch up with the BJP. BJP has sites for all the states of India; these are for the local communication in the state. BJP had the India Shining campaign as the theme in which the party had extensively used New Media. Language of the Content of Website Maharashtra state has the local language called Marathi and Gujarat has Gujarati. There are 71, 936,894 (6.99% of the total population) Marathi Speaking people in India where as 46,091,617 (4.48% of total population) people of India speak Gujarati. This is against 90,000,000 (10.66% of total population) in India. Yet the parties have totally neglected the regional language. No one has given regional font for download. Campaign Strategists bank heavily on the local language to write text for bills, posters, billboards, and advertisements etc. Hence logically they should write contents of the sites in local languages to reach majority voters. However this study revealed that the sites depended only on English. None of the all the eight websites of political parties in Maharashtra and Gujarat had site analytics , date of the last update of the website and site map. The date for last updating is necessary in some situations. For Example political parties announce their candidates for elections in two three phases or more. They announce various lists and it changes even after announcements. If the date of last updating is given, the visitors of site can easily come to know whether it is an odd list or the latest one. This happens with other types of content too. Site Map is a feature that helps the user to easily locate the needed information on that site. They also act as a navigation aid by providing an overview of sites content at a single glance. If the number of links is very large, the site map helps visitors to access all content on the site. Webmaster: Details of the webmaster (email, phone or fax) are necessary because a visitor can write to him/her in case the site or part of it does not function. All sites had Telephone number to only the head quarters and no region wise contacts. All sites had given the indication of a copyright. This prohibited others from using the website content for free. Visitors counter is another feature which is neglected by these sites , the visitor counter helps getting everyone an idea about the popularity and utility of the site. Unit Analysis of Websites Information of the party Indian National Congress The site of the Indian National Congress had given Information about the history of the party , the latest manifesto, List of candidates and the current Office bearers. Bhartiya Janata Party The Bhartiya Janata Party had given Information about the Organisational Structure of the Party, History of the party, List of states under BJP rule and the current list of Member of Parliament Samajwadi Party The Samajwadi party had given information regarding the performance of the party in the recent elections and the list of candidates for the Lok Sabha Elections in 2009. There was no mention of any kind of History of the party and the party manifesto Bahujan Samaj Party The Bahujan Samaj party website was more focuses only on current activities of the party and no information about the past. They didnt have the list of candidates or constituency which they have won in the recent elections. There was no mention of any kind of organisational structure in the party. There was no mention of Alliance partners of any of the websites under perview Interaction with People Indian National Congress The website of the Indian National Congress had given option to submit their feedback, comments, suggestions and complaints. There was no Toll free number mentioned on their website. Bhartiya Janata Party The Bhartiya Janata party was more people and new media friendly they had subscription to RSS feed They also had an opinion poll on their website to know peoples view on a particular issue. Samajwadi Party The website of the Samajwadi Party had only contact numbers of the head office and respective branch offices. They had no other latest interactive features on their website. Bahujan Samaj Party The website was least interactive among websites of all the parties. The party was more interested in a monologue and not a dialogue with its voters. The website had no links or any other such things to keep the voters updated on the happenings. Appeal to the people Indian National Congress The Website of the Indian National Congress does not appeal to vote for it neither their alliances. There is no way that anyone interested in joining the party could apply for a position. There was no appeal for a donation for a noble cause. Bhartiya Janata Party The Website of the Bhartiya Janata Party does not appeal to vote for it neither their alliances. There is no way that anyone interested in joining the party could apply for a position. There was no appeal for a donation for a noble cause. Samajwadi Party The Website of the Samajwadi Party does not appeal to vote for it neither their alliances. There is no way that anyone interested in joining the party could apply for a position. There was no appeal for a donation for a noble cause. Bahujan Samaj Party The Website of the Bahujan Samaj Party does not appeal to vote for it neither their alliances. There is no way that anyone interested in joining the party could apply for a position. There was no appeal for a donation for a noble cause. Service to the people Indian National Congress Every website should be user friendly at the base level and somehow it should help us in the entire process of voting. The website of the Indian National Congress had no links for whats new on the website, FAQ s etc. Bhartiya Janata Party The website of the Bhartiya Janata Party had links whats new is happening to the political party in India. There was no service of any kind to the people. Samajwadi Party During Elections, finding your name on the voters list is one of the most tedious tasks for any voter. Samajwadi Party is the only party which is providing voters list to its users. This is one of the most useful features on any of the websites. Bahujan Samaj Party There is no feature of any kind on the Bahujan Samaj Party Website. The lowest on service to people. Media Coverage and Public Relations Indian National Congress The Media Coverage and Public Relations is an integral part of any website, it gives you a coverage on the latest happenings of the political party. The media coverage in the INC website give you info only on the election results and not on the party achievements in each of their state. Bhartiya Janata Party The BJP Website has put photo gallery section at the front of their home page and audio-video features to attract the visitors Samajwadi Party The Samajwadi Party has their media section updated and it has given it list of latest joins in the party on the website. The party is not in power in any state so its only mentioned its achievements when they were in power Bahujan Samaj Party The Bahujan Samaj Party uses it website to effectively communicate its latest achievements, especially in the state of Uttar Pradesh where its a ruling party. Other News of the party is lost in the clutter of information which is present in the website. Transparency Indian National Congress Transparency is one thing that the Indian voter likes to see with every political party. The site didnt try to remain transparent about declaring the assets of their candidates even though it was a simple thing to do. All the details of assets of a particular candidate are given on the site of the Election Commission of India. Bhartiya Janata Party The site didnt try to remain transparent about declaring the assets of their candidates even though it was a simple thing to do Samajwadi Party The site didnt try to remain transparent about declaring the assets of their candidates even though it was a simple thing to do Bahujan Samaj Party The site didnt try to remain transparent about declaring the assets of their candidates even though it was a simple thing to do Unit Analysis of Websites INC BJP SP BSP Information on the Website Interaction with people Appeal to People